Nouns
Number
There are two grammatical numbers: the singular and the plural. Count nouns are marked to indicate number, whereas mass nouns do not change for number.
There are a few ways to form the plural from the singular, as shown in the table below:
| Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| I | The onset and nucleus of the initial syllable C₁(C₂)V is reduplicated as C₁V | vinna > vivinna, keni > kakeni, sdên > sasdên, tout > tutout, môt > mamôt |
| II | The onset and nucleus of the initial syllable C₁(C₂)V is reduplicated as S₁V, where S₁ is the "softened" variant of C₁ | kanu > čakanu, touni > sutouni |
| III | The onset and nucleus of the initial syllable C₁(C₂)V is reduplicated as C₁VS₁, where S₁ is the "softened" variant of C₁ | tanu > tastanu |
| IV | The onset and nucleus of the initial syllable C₁C₂V is reduplicated as C₂V | sti > tisti |
| V | The onset and nucleus of the initial syllable C₁C₂V is reduplicated as S₂V where S₂ is the "softened" variant of C₂ | škê > čaškê |
| VI | Alter word-final vowel | keinu > keinou |
Noun Class
Nouns are categorized into various noun classes. Nouns are not themselves marked for gender, but adjectives, pronouns and verbs agree in noun class with the nouns they refer to.
- Animate, Rational
- Animate, Irrational
- Inanimate (physical items/things)
- Miscellaneous (all other nouns)
The distinction between rational and irrational animate nouns lies in the level of intelligence that is associated with those nouns by the language's speakers. For example, they would generally consider mammals and other animals to be part of Class I (Animate, Rational) but would consider insects to be part of Class II (Animate, Irrational).
Abstract concepts and natural phenomena can fall into Class I, Class II or Class IV depending on the traditions of the language's speakers as well as the specific meaning that is intended. For example, "rain" is considered to be an Class II animate noun (albeit an uncountable one) due to its significance for life.
Noun Case
There are four cases: the nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.
Nominative
The nominative case is used to mark the subject of clauses. It is considered to be the unmarked, citation form of nouns. The nominative case is also used in a vocative sense.
Accusative
The accusative case is used to mark the direct object of clauses. It is formed through the addition of the suffix '-u'. For example, ratên > ratênu. When suffixed to word-final long vowels, a 'v' is inserted between the final long vowel and the suffix. For example, keinou > keinouvu.
When suffixed to a word ending in e or ô, the word-final vowel is altered to ê and the suffix '-yu' or '-vu' is used instead, respectively. For example, tumpe > tumpêyu, kastô > kastêvu.
Dative
The dative case is used to mark the indirect object of clauses. It is formed through the addition of the suffix '-ŋ'. For example, tumpe > tumpeŋ; keinu > keinuŋ.
When suffixed to a word-final consonant, an echo vowel is inserted between the consonant and the suffix, which is a shortened variant of the word-final syllable's vowel. For the vowels e, ê and ô, the echo vowel is a. For the diphthong ou, the echo vowel is u. For example, sdên > sdênaŋ.
In passive voice constructions, the dative case is used to reintroduce the subject of the equivalent active voice construction.
Genitive
The genitive case is used to mark possession as well as composition (in a partitive relationship). It is formed through the addition of the suffix '-ne'. For example, tumpe > tumpene; keinu > keinune.